Memory 

•  persistence of learning over time through the process of storage and retrieval of information

Encoding (1)

• processing of info into the memory system

Storage (2)

•  retention of material over time

Retrieval (3)

•  the process of getting the information out of memory storage
•  Retrieval failure: forgetting something, or not getting the info out of storage

Recall vs. Recognition

Recall

•  retrieve info from your memory
•  ex: fill in the blank test

Recognition

•  identify the target from possible targets
•  ex: multiple choice tests

Flash Bulb Memory

•  A clear moment of an emotionally significant event

Three types of Memory

Sensory

•  the immediate initial recording of sensory information stored for just an instant and most info goes unprocessed

Short Term

•  memory that holds a few items briefly
•  can hold 7 digits
•  if not stored here, goes to long term or its forgotten
•  three parts: audio, visual, intergration of audio and visual

Long Term

•  permanent and limitless storehouse of memory
•  explicit memories
•  implicit memories

Explicit Memories

•  episodic memories
• semantic memories

Implicit Memories

•  procedural memories
•  conditioned memories

Encoding Information

•  Primary Effect
•  Recency Effect
•  Serial Positioning Effect

The way we can encode

•  Visual: the encoding of picture images
•  Acoustic: encoding of sound, especially sounds of words
•  Semantic: encoding of meaning

Constructive Memory

•  Memories are not always what they seem
•  Elizabeth Loftus
•  Constructed memory is a created memory
•  Misinformation effect

Forgetting

•  Retroactive Interference: new info blocks out old info
•  Proactive Interference: old info blocks new info

Storing Memories

•  Long term Potential: long lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously
•  In other words, they learn to fire together and get better at it, creating a memory

Learning

Learning

How do we learn?

•  Most is associative learning
•  certain events occur together

Three Main types

•  Classical conditioning
•  Observational learning 
•  Abstract learning

Classical
 Started with Ivan Pavlov
1. acquisition
2. extinction
3. spontaneous recovery
4. generalization
5. discrimination

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

•  stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response

Unconditioned response (UCR)

•  the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

•  an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response

Conditioned Response (CR)

•  the learned response to a previous stimulus

Acquisition

•  Initial stage of learning
•  Phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR thus becoming the CS

Extinction

•  The diminishing if a conditioned response
•  Will eventually happen when the UCS dows not follow the CS

Spontaneous Recovery

•  The reappearen after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

•  The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

•  The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS

Sleep and stages

Biological Rhythms

•  Annual Cycles: seasonal variations 
• 28 days: menstrual cycle
• 24 hour cycle: our circadian rhythm
• 90 minute cycle: sleep cycles

Circadian Rhythm

•  24 biological clock
•  body temp and awareness changes throughout the day

Sleep Stages

•  90 to 100 mins to pass through the stages
•  Brains waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in
•  First four are known as NREM sleep
•  The fifth stage is called REM sleep

   Stage 1

• Kind of awake and kind of asleep
• Only lasts a few minutes, and you usually only experience it once a night
• Eyes begin to roll slightly
•  Your brain produces Theta Waves (high amp, low frequency) (slow)

   Stage 2

•  This follows Stage 1 sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep
•  This stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep
•  More Theta Waves that get progressively slower
•  Begin to show sleep spindles.. short bursts of rapid brain waves

     Stage 3 and 4

•  Slow wave sleep
•  You produce Delta waves
•  If awoken you will be very groggy
•  Vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health

     Stage 5: REM Sleep

•  Rapid Eye Movement
•  Dreams usually occur in REM
•  Body is essentially paralyzed
•  Composes 20-25% of a normal nights sleep
•  Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken
•  Vivid dreams can occur
•  From REM, you go back to Stage 2
• 

unit 5

Intelligence 

• the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Factor Analysis

• A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test

Charles Spearman used F A to discovery his general intelligence

Multiple Intelligenc

•  Howard Gardner disagreed with Spear man's g and instead came up with the concept of multiple intelligence

Gardners Multiple Intelligences:

• Visual/Spatial,Verbal/Lunguistic,Logical/Mathematical

Sternberg three aspects of intelligence

• Gardner Simplified,Analytically (academic problem solving),Creative (generating novel ideas),Practical (required for everyday task where multiple solutions exist)

Emotional Intelligence

• The ability to perceive express understand and regulate emotions

How do we Assess intelligence?

• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon set out to figure out The concept called a mental age (what a person a particular age should know)
• They discovered that by discovering someones mental age they can predict future performance
• Hoped they could use test to help children, not label them
• Modern Tests of Mental Abilities
• Welsher Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) consists of 11 sub tests and cues us in to strengths by using factor analysis

Aptitude v. Achievement tests

• Aptitude: A test designed to predict a persons future performance
• The ability for that person to learn
• Achievement: A test designed to assess what a person has learned

How do we construct Intelligence tests?

• Teats must be Standardized, Reliable, Valid
• Standardization: The test must be pretested to a representative sample of people and form a normal distributions or bell curve
• Flynn Effect: Intelligence test performance has been rising
• Reliability: The extent which a test yields consistent results over time
• Split halves or test retest method
• Valadity: The extent to which is a text to measure what it is supposed to measure
• Content Validity:  does the test sample at behavior of interest

Extremes of Intelligence

• Grouo differences in intelligenxe test scores
• The bell curve is different for whites v. black
• math scores are dufferent across genders and the highest scores are for the asian males
• Why? nature or nature

prototypes:

• or best example of a category

Algorithms:

•  a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Match problem

• fixation:  The inability to see a problem from a new perspective
• Mental Set:A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way especially if it has worked in the past

Types of Heyristics

• overconfidence: The tendency to be more confident than correct overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments
• cognition: another term for thinking knowing and remembering

how to resolve problems?

• heuristics:  role of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently